The Struggle for Spain: Napoleon’s 1812 Campaign

⚔️ The Stalemate of 1812: French Forces in Spain

By 1812, Napoleon’s French Empire had a quarter of a million troops stationed in Spain, bogged down in a war that seemed to have no end. They faced a bitter struggle against the people of Spain, who’d taken up arms in a guerrilla war, as well as the remnants of Spain’s field armies, and an Anglo-Portuguese army under Lord Wellington. **But French forces in Spain remained formidable** and in firm control of the capital Madrid and most major cities. The year began with another great French victory in the south, creating a calamity for Spain and Portugal.

👥 The Bitter Reality for French Soldiers

Spain and Portugal would become a graveyard not just for young French conscripts but for the reputation of some of France’s most famous generals. *General Junot, Marshal Soult, and Marshal Jourdan had all tasted defeat. Marshal Masséna had been recalled in disgrace.*

• Marshal Louis-Gabriel Suchet stood as an exception among French generals in Spain.
• French generals in Spain were notorious for their looting; Soult having stolen one and half million francs’ worth of art from Spanish monasteries and churches.

🛡️ Marshal Suchet: A Different Approach

As Governor of Aragon, Marshal Suchet enforced strict discipline on his troops, punishing any who tried to steal or extort money from the Spanish, while treating local authorities with respect. He combined this hearts and minds strategy with ruthless military action against the guerrillas, establishing firm control of Aragon.

🏷️ The Seige of Tarragona and Beyond

In June 1811, after a particularly bloody assault, Suchet took the port of Tarragona, for which Napoleon rewarded him with his Marshal’s baton. The Emperor then sent him reinforcements and ordered him to take Valencia.

• Suchet routed a much larger Spanish army that attacked him at Saguntum.
• Succeeded in besieging Valencia, forcing General Blake to surrender on 8th January 1812.

👥 Napoleon’s Strategic Misstep

To reinforce Suchet, Napoleon had stripped troops from other armies in Spain and withdrawn 25,000 of the best troops for his imminent invasion of Russia. **As a result, French forces in Spain were now severely overstretched, just as Wellington prepared to strike.**

🎖️ Wellington Takes the Offensive

• Spanish guerrillas kept Wellington well-informed of French movements.
• Deciding to go on the offensive, Wellington laid siege to Ciudad Rodrigo on the Portuguese-Spanish frontier.

On the day that Valencia fell, Wellington’s assault succeeded after just ten days, despite losing Major General Craufurd among 300 killed.

⚔️ The Battle for Badajoz

Wellington then marched south to besiege the much more strongly defended city of Badajoz. An assault was made on the night of 6th April. The first wave attacking the main breach was slaughtered, but what was supposed to be a diversionary attack on the city’s castle with scaling ladders succeeded, and the city soon fell.

• The storming of Badajoz cost the British 3,700 casualties.
• Post-battle rampage: British survivors looted, drank, raped, and killed over 100 Spanish civilians before order was restored.

🐎 Securing Strategic Points

Wellington had secured the two main routes between Spain and Portugal. **He then sent General Hill with a small Anglo-Portuguese force to destroy the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz**, a vital link between Marmont’s Army of Portugal and Soult’s Army of the South.

🐾 The March to Salamanca

Wellington launched a swift and daring assault to take the well-guarded French defenses by surprise, achieving it with only 177 casualties. With routes secured, Wellington began his advance into Spain. **His arrival at Salamanca saw Marmont withdraw behind the Douro River.**

🗺️ Outmaneuvering the French

For six days, Marmont tried to march around Wellington’s flank, but the British general matched him move for move. Their two armies marched in parallel within sight of each other.

🌄 Battle of Salamanca: A Turning Point

On the morning of 22nd July, Wellington’s army occupied high ground south of Salamanca. Marmont sought to outflank Wellington and cut off his retreat, but he misunderstood Wellington’s cautious nature.

🌟 The Decisive Move

• Around 2pm, Marmont ordered divisions to march west to cut off the assumed British retreat.
• General Maucune’s division stopped to engage the British in Los Arapiles, mistakenly assuming it was the rearguard.

Wellington saw the French left flank strung out and seized this rare opportunity, galloping across country to give orders for a full-on assault.

🎭 Wellington’s Masterstroke

The 3rd Division’s advance was hidden by low hills, catching Thomières’ division completely off guard and routing it. At this crucial moment, **Marshal Marmont was hit by a British shell, carrying him off the field seriously wounded.** Command shifted to General Bonnet, but he was also wounded, passing leadership to General Clauzel.

🔄 The Collapse of the French Forces

45 minutes later, the British 5th Division attacked, supported by Portuguese brigades and General Le Marchant’s dragoons. The French forces formed squares to repel the cavalry but were overwhelmed by the infantry first.

• The French left flank crumbled, with Le Marchant’s brigade destroying eight French battalions.
• Despite countering Pack’s Portuguese brigade’s attack on the Greater Arapil, the French were forced to retreat.

General Clauzel launched an attack on the Lesser Arapil, attempting to snatch victory but was repelled by fresh troops from Clinton’s 6th Division.

🌌 The Aftermath and Pursuit

With the French army in disarray, its soldiers streamed away into the woods. General Ferrey’s 3rd Division mounted a brave but futile rearguard action. Only General Foy’s 1st Division escaped in good order.

🏇 Final Efforts

• Dragoons of the King’s German Legion achieved a rare feat of charging down a French infantry square, taking another thousand prisoners.
• Wellington marched on Madrid, forcing King Joseph to abandon the capital.

🎉 Liberation of Madrid

On 12th August, Wellington liberated Madrid, prompting wild celebrations. Soult, now at risk of being cut off in Andalucía, abandoned the siege of Cadiz and marched east to join Joseph and Suchet.

📜 The Northern Push

The following month, Wellington marched north, pushing the French back from Valladolid, and besieging the castle of Burgos. However, his army lacked heavy artillery, and the French garrison fought bravely.

🌀 Wellington’s Forced Retreat

As powerful French armies gathered, Wellington’s position became precarious, forcing him into a desperate retreat through autumn rain. The supply system collapsed, causing many soldiers to loot Spanish villages.

🔄 Back to Square One

Madrid was abandoned and re-occupied by the French on 1st November. Wellington returned to his previous position from five months earlier.

**Despite the campaign’s dismal conclusion, Wellington’s strike had liberated large swathes of Spain, leaving the French overstretched**. Reinforced and resupplied, Wellington would return the following year to deliver the final blow to Joseph’s Spanish kingdom.

🔮 The Wider Context: The Beginning of the End

1812 saw the tide of war turn, not just in Spain but also 2,000 miles to the east in Russia, where catastrophe engulfed La Grande Armée.