September 21, 2024 | by Unboxify
February 1799. French General Napoleon Bonaparte finds himself in a precarious position. Having recently conquered Egypt, his control is already threatened by an imminent revolt, and the British have destroyed his fleet, effectively severing any reinforcements. The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire has vowed to crush this foreign invader, mobilizing two large armies to reclaim Egypt. But Napoleon, characteristically assertive, opts not to wait for his enemies to make the first move. He targets the forces gathering in Syria, rumored to be 50,000 strong, as his first target.
On the 10th of February, Napoleon leads a force of just 13,000 men into the Sinai Desert, bound for the Holy Land. His forces, organized into four infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade commanded by Murat, are highly motivated and well-led, but speed and surprise are imperative. However, their journey does not go as planned.
Poorly prepared for the desert’s harsh conditions, the French struggle with scarce water and dwindling food supplies. At El-Arish, they encounter an unexpected obstacle—a garrison of 3,000 Ottoman soldiers. The ensuing siege lasts 11 days and costs the French 400 casualties. The garrison surrenders only after being granted generous terms: they are disarmed but allowed to leave, having sworn an oath not to take up arms against the French for a year.
After el-Arish, the French army enters Palestine, a relief from the barren Sinai Desert. On the 24th of February, they occupy Gaza, delighted to discover large stores of food and ammunition abandoned by the Ottomans. Their next objective is the port-city of Jaffa, held by 5,000 Ottoman soldiers. Napoleon’s field guns blast away at the city’s stone walls until a breach is made. A messenger sent to invite the Ottomans to surrender suffers a gruesome fate—his head is severed and displayed from the city walls.
Enraged, French soldiers storm the breach, unlocking an indiscriminate killing spree that lasts 24 hours. French accounts describe horrific scenes: piles of bodies, the smell of blood, and shouts of victors quarrelling about loot. Over 2,000 Ottoman soldiers, along with women and children, are slaughtered. The next day sees order slowly restored, but worse horrors are yet to come.
In the aftermath, Napoleon finds himself with 3,000 Ottoman prisoners promised their lives. Struggling with stretched supplies and troops, Napoleon cannot afford to guard or feed these captives, some of whom had sworn an oath at el-Arish. After consulting with his officers, he orders their execution. Over three days, the French lead the prisoners to the beach and kill them, some by shooting, others by driving them into the sea, and eventually using bayonets to conserve ammunition.
The aftermath of Jaffa gives Napoleon’s enemies propaganda material, while he himself will defend these atrocities for the rest of his life. It seems divine judgment strikes soon after, as hundreds of French soldiers fall sick with bubonic plague. Showing considerable bravery, Napoleon visits the sick in hospital, later celebrated by his propagandists.
Napoleon’s next target is Acre, a city of historical significance and the seat of the local Ottoman governor, Ahmed Pasha al-Djezzar, known as ‘The Butcher’. Unbeknownst to Napoleon, two British ships-of-the-line have arrived to support al-Djezzar. Upon Napoleon’s arrival at Mount Carmel, he witnesses the capture of a coastal convoy bearing his vital siege guns by the British—a massive blow to his plans for a quick siege.
The French arrive in Acre on the 18th of March and start to dig in. Lacking heavy artillery, their field guns manage only minimal damage to Acre’s formidable defenses. Attempts to assault the walls are repelled, and defenders offer significant resistance, decapitating any French soldiers left behind.
The siege enters a stalemate. Napoleon awaits heavier guns from Alexandria but soon learns of another Ottoman force gathering in the north. Splitting his forces, Napoleon outmaneuvers smaller enemy contingents but realizes the main enemy force lies near Mount Tabor. General Kléber’s division holds 35,000 Ottomans at bay for 10 hours under a scorching sun until Napoleon arrives with reinforcements, surprising the Ottomans and causing them to flee. Despite odds, Napoleon reclaims control over Palestine, but the city of Acre remains unconquered.
Alarmingly, plague continues to spread in French ranks. A potential breakthrough occurs on the 24th of April as the French explode a mine under one of Acre’s towers. Despite immediate assault orders, French troops face torrential counterfire and fall back. By May 7th, heavier artillery arrives, leading to another massive assault, but defending forces, bolstered by British marines, repel the French. General Lannes is wounded; General Bon is mortally wounded. Eventually, Napoleon calls off the siege—the attempt to take Acre has failed.
Costing 4,500 casualties, the four-month campaign sees Napoleon’s first significant military defeat. However, his main objective—neutralizing Syrian threats—is achieved. Napoleon begins the grueling 300-mile march back to Egypt on the 20th of May.
On their way back, Napoleon orders the mercy killing of 50 plague-stricken soldiers unable to march further, giving them laudanum. Controversial as it may be, the French march continues, with the army reaching Cairo by the 14th of June, greeted by triumphal parades organized by Napoleon himself.
In mid-July, Napoleon learns of an Ottoman invasion at Aboukir. Without delay, he mobilizes the Cairo garrison, Murat’s cavalry, and Kléber’s division—totaling 10,000 men—and races towards Aboukir. The Ottoman commander Said Mustafa Pasha plans to force the French into attacking his strong defenses, but Napoleon rejoices at the enemy’s limited mobility.
On the 25th of July, Napoleon orders an all-out attack at dawn. Rapidly overcoming the incomplete first defensive line, French cavalry cuts off the Ottoman right flank, leading to thousands of defenders panicking and drowning while fleeing into the sea.
The French advance on the second line, bolstered by Turkish soldiers overly eager to pursue. Seizing the moment, Murat charges with his cavalry, leading to the collapse of the second defense line. Murat captures Mustafa Pasha, and by 1 pm, the Turkish army is utterly decimated. The fortress holds out slightly longer but surrenders by the 2nd of August. This battle significantly repairs Napoleon’s reputation.
Despite this victory, troubling news from Europe reaches Napoleon—a new Second Coalition threatens the French Republic. Amidst political tensions, Napoleon realizes that his destiny lies back in Europe. On the evening of the 23rd of August, he boards a frigate, quietly leaving for France with a small entourage. Napoleon’s departure leaves General Kléber in command to face the burden of their critical situation. Kléber’s resentment towards his sudden promotion is expressed starkly, though he will never return to Europe.
The remnants of the French army in Egypt eventually surrender in 1801. The Egyptian campaign, marred by immense brutality and struggles, contributes one significant positive outcome—the groundwork for Egyptology. Napoleon’s inspection of the Rosetta Stone, rediscovered by French troops, enables the eventual unlocking of Egyptian hieroglyphs by scholars in later years. This discovery revolutionizes the study of Ancient Egypt, establishing an entirely new academic discipline.
Napoleon’s perilous voyage across the Mediterranean spans 41 days, including a tense passage past Royal Navy patrols. Making his last visit to Corsica en route, he heads towards an imminent destiny in France, preparing for the next step in his extraordinary rise to power.
In conclusion, Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign, characterized by striking victories, brutal massacres, and historical discoveries, remains a significant chapter in his storied military career, continuously compelling and ripe with lessons in both leadership and the human condition.
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